Volume-11 Issue-7, June 2022 – International Journal of Innovative Technology and Exploring Engineering (IJITEE)

H91350711822

IJITEE Journal — Sat, 18 Jun 2022 10:47:52 +0000

The International Journal of Innovative Technology and Exploring Engineering (IJITEE) has ISSN: 2278-3075 (online), an open-access, peer-reviewed, periodical monthly international journal. This journal is published by Blue Eyes Intelligence Engineering and Sciences Publication (BEIESP) in January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November and December.The journal aims to publish high–quality peer–reviewed original articles in the area of Engineering and Technology that covers Computer Science and Engineering, Information Technology, Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Electronics and Telecommunication, Mechanical Engineering, Civil Engineering and all interdisciplinary streams of Engineering and Technology. #Smart Computing and Information Processing #Signal and Speech Processing #Image Processing and Pattern Recognition #WSN#Artificial Intelligence and machine learning #Data mining and warehousing #Data Analytics #Deep learning #Bioinformatics #High Performance computing #Advanced Computer Networking #Cloud Computing #IoT #Parallel Computing on GPU #Human Computer Interactions #Recent Trends in Microelectronics and VLSI Design #Process & Device Technologies #Low-Power Design #Nanometer-Scale Integrated Circuits #Application specific ICs (ASICs) #FPGAs #Nanotechnology #Nano Electronics and Quantum Computing #3. Challenges of Industry and their Solutions, Communications #Advanced Manufacturing Technologies #Artificial Intelligence #Autonomous Robots #Augmented Reality #Big Data Analytics and Business Intelligence #Cyber Physical Systems (CPS) #Digital Clone or Simulation #Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) #Manufacturing IoT #Plant Cyber Security #Smart Solutions – Wearable Sensors and Smart Glasses #System Integration #Small Batch Manufacturing #Visual Analytics #Virtual Reality #3D Printing # Internet of Things (IoT) #Internet of Things (IoT) & IoE & Edge Computing #Distributed Mobile Applications Utilizing IoT #Security, Privacy and Trust in IoT & IoE #Standards for IoT Applications #Ubiquitous Computing #Block Chain-enabled IoT Device and Data Security and Privacy #Application of WSN in IoT #Cloud Resources Utilization in IoT #Wireless Access Technologies for IoT #Mobile Applications and Services for IoT #Machine/ Deep Learning with IoT & IoE #Smart Sensors and Internet of Things for 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Different Applications of 3D Printing in The Biological, Chemical, and Pharmaceutical Fields
Ajith Mohanavilasam Vijayan
Ajith Mohanavilasam Vijayan*, Department of Chemistry, Marthoma College, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam (Kerala), India.

Manuscript received on 12 June 2022. | Revised Manuscript received on 17 June 2022. | Manuscript published on 30 June 2022. | PP: 59-63 | Volume-11 Issue-7, June 2022. | Retrieval Number: 100.1/ijitee.H91350711822 | DOI: 10.35940/ijitee.H9135.0611722
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© The Authors. Blue Eyes Intelligence Engineering and Sciences Publication (BEIESP). This is an open access article under the CC-BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)

Abstract: In the modern chemistry laboratory, three-dimensional (3D) printing is becoming the most important part over time. This technique helps chemists with the potential to design, print, and prototype functional devices that combine analytical and/or catalytic functionalities and as well as to print general laboratory teaching and hardware aids. Although the availability of 3D printers has increased substantially, some principles of design and considerations of material requirements to be estimated by weight before employing this type of technology in the laboratories of chemistry. Also, a fixed level of expertise requires to be obtained to utilize CAD (computer-aided design), software for printing, and the hardware specialist related to the instrumentation of higher-end. Nevertheless, the recent development in this area is providing, with these technologies of printing rendering various advantages over the general methods of production. This paper reviews various applications and advances of this technology in the field of chemical, biological and pharmaceutical.
Keywords: Biological, Chemical, 3D printing, Pharmaceutical.
Scope of the Article: 3D printing

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G91070611722

IJITEE Journal — Sat, 11 Jun 2022 08:41:19 +0000

Building Affordable Homes with Mass Timber Construction
Bharathi Prem
Architect Bharathi Prem*, Associate Professor, Department of Architecture, RNS School of Architecture, Bangalore (Karnataka), India.

Manuscript received on 30 May 2022. | Revised Manuscript received on 07 June 2022. | Manuscript published on 30 June 2022 | PP: 53-58 | Volume-11 Issue-7, June 2022. | Retrieval Number: 100.1/ijitee.G91070611722 | DOI: 10.35940/ijitee.G9107.0611722
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© The Authors. Blue Eyes Intelligence Engineering and Sciences Publication (BEIESP). This is an open access article under the CC-BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)

Abstract: With the explosion in increased population migration to metro cities, housing infrastructure poses to be one of the biggest challenges in India as well as other countries. Housing in-equality, affordability and homelessness are persistent and complex challenges in our society. United Nations in the year 2015 has adopted Sustainable Development Goals or Global Goals to facilitate people to enjoy peace and prosperity, allow balanced social, economic and environmental sustainability. The need for a safe space to live which transforms the quality of life of individuals and families is a basic necessity. Thus, providing sustainable cities and communities along with good health and well-being of the citizens are priorities which needs to be addressed along with providing affordable clean energy, furthering actions to mitigate climate change. According to a United Nations report, (17) by 2050, more than 7 billion people will move to cities. The rapid growth of cities due to rising population has resulted in increased number of slums which are becoming a feature of urban life. To accommodate the rising urban poor, affordable homes have to be envisioned and built faster. The delay in construction time required by conventional construction methods is resulting in squatter, un- organized settlements as well as contributing largely to global carbon emissions. The need to provide affordable, sustainable homes with healthy benefits using better construction technology is the need of the day. Conventional method of construction which involves concrete and steel are a disastrous method of construction as they are dependent on energy generated from fossil fuels to process materials. As per a United Nations report (17), globally our cities occupy 3 percent of Earth’s land but account for 60 to 80 percent of energy consumption and 70 percent of carbon emissions. Hence, the need for alternative sustainable method of construction which can be built in the smallest amount of time, is a necessity. The technology adopted must be a big leap in reducing the carbon emissions, reducing the construction time and providing a healthy environment for the habitants. Presently in India, to reduce the construction time of mass housing, the Government is adopting ‘light gauge steel frame’ structures in which constructions are faster compared to the conventional buildings. However, this method is still dependent on burning of fossil fuels and other non-renewable resources still resulting in a sizeable carbon footprint. The need to adopt sustainable ways of construction, with less environmental disruption, while ensuring quality and to build faster, led to study of various construction practices adopted globally. Amongst the various solutions, Mass Timber Construction is believed to be one of the most effective solution, characterized by pre-fabricated components manufactured offsite and assembled on site in a shorter period of time and reduced dependency on workers, all the while using a renewable resource, timber. To move towards accomplishing the Sustainable Development Goals set by the United Nations, our future cities have be built to be safe, sustainable and inclusive. For achieving this we have to change and relook the way we build.
Keywords: Carbon neutral buildings. Cross laminated timber, Sustainable Construction, Build with speed
Scope of the Article: Sustainable Structures

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G99800611722

IJITEE Journal — Sat, 11 Jun 2022 08:33:43 +0000

The Place of Computer Science in the Processing of Master’s Theses of Students of the National Higher Institute of Popular Education and Sport (N.H.I.P.E.)
Ousmane Ba¹, Souleymane Diallo²
¹Dr. Ousmane Ba*, National Higher Institute of Popular Education and Sport (N.H.I.P.E.), Cheikh Anta Diop University of Dakar, Senegal.
²Dr. Souleymane Diallo, National Higher Institute of Popular Education and Sport (N.H.I.P.E.), Cheikh Anta Diop University of Dakar, Senegal.
Manuscript received on 23 May 2022. | Revised Manuscript received on 03 June 2022. | Manuscript published on 30 June 2022. | PP: 49-52 | Volume-11 Issue-7, June 2022. | Retrieval Number: 100.1/ijitee.G99800611722 | DOI: 10.35940/ijitee.G9980.0611722
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© The Authors. Blue Eyes Intelligence Engineering and Sciences Publication (BEIESP). This is an open access article under the CC-BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)

Abstract: This article highlights the place of computer science in the processing of Master’s theses of students in the National Higher Institute of Popular Education and Sport (N.H.I.P.E.) of the Cheikh Anta Diop University of Dakar (UCAD). In fact, the main objective of this research is to see the students’ level of appropriation of the computer tool in that Institute during the writing of their Master’s theses. To better tackle this topic, we have focused on a purely qualitative research methodology with documentary research, observation and interview as a technique. Finally, the results from the field show that computer science has a positive influence on the processing of students’ Master’s theses within the Institute even if there are malfunctions to be improved and corrected.
Keywords: Computer science; Computer; Internet; University; Research
Scope of the Article: Smart Learning and Innovative Education Systems

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G99920611722

IJITEE Journal — Fri, 03 Jun 2022 09:49:59 +0000

A Novel Approach to Explainable AI using Formal Concept Lattice
Bhaskaran Venkatsubramaniam¹, Pallav Kumar Baruah²
¹Bhaskaran Venkatsubramaniam*, Department of Math and Computer Science, Sri Sathya Sai Institute of Higher Learning, Muddenahalli (Karnataka), India.
²Prof. Pallav Kumar Baruah, Department of Math and Computer Science, Sri Sathya Sai Institute of Higher Learning, Puttaparthi (Andhra Pradesh), India.
Manuscript received on 26 May 2022. | Revised Manuscript received on 02 June 2022. | Manuscript published on 30 June 2022. | PP: 36-48 | Volume-11 Issue-7, June 2022. | Retrieval Number: 100.1/ijitee.G99920611722 | DOI: 10.35940/ijitee.G9992.0611722
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© The Authors. Blue Eyes Intelligence Engineering and Sciences Publication (BEIESP). This is an open access article under the CC-BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)

Abstract: Current approaches in explainable AI use an interpretable model to approximate a black box model or use gradient techniques to determine the salient parts of the input. While it is true that such approaches provide intuition about the black box model, the primary purpose of an explanation is to be exact at an individual instance and also from a global perspective, which is difficult to obtain using such model based approximations or from salient parts. On the other hand, traditional, deterministic approaches satisfy this primary purpose of explainability of being exact at an individual instance and globally, while posing a challenge to scale for large amounts of data. In this work, we propose a deterministic, novel approach to explainability using a formal concept lattice for classification problems, that reveal accurate explanations both globally and locally, including generation of similar and contrastive examples around an instance. This technique consists of preliminary lattice construction, synthetic data generation using implications from the preliminary lattice followed by actual lattice construction which is used to generate local, global, similar and contrastive explanations. Using sanity tests like Implementation Invariance, Input transformation Invariance, Model parameter randomization sensitivity and model-outcome relationship randomization sensitivity, its credibility is proven. Explanations from the lattice are compared to a white box model in order to prove its trustworthiness.
Keywords: Explainable AI, Deterministic methods for XAI, Concept Lattice, Formal Concept Analysis, Lattice explanation for black box models, Lattice for XAI, XAI.
Scope of the Article: Artificial Intelligence

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G99930611722

IJITEE Journal — Fri, 03 Jun 2022 09:43:34 +0000

Software Defect Prediction: State of the Art Survey
Swadesh Kumar¹, Rajesh Kumar Singh², Awadhesh Kumar Maurya³
¹Swadesh Kumar*, Lecturer, Department of Information Technology, Mahamaya Polytechnic of Information Technology, Chandauli (U.P), India.
²Rajesh Kumar Singh, Assistant Professor, Department of Information Technology, Dr. R. L. Avadh University, Ayodhya (U.P), India.
³Awadhesh Kumar Maurya, Assistant Professor, Department of Information Technology, Dr. R. L. Avadh University, Ayodhya (U.P), India.
Manuscript received on 27 May 2022. | Revised Manuscript received on 02 June 2022. | Manuscript published on 30 June 2022. | PP: 32-35 | Volume-11 Issue-7, June 2022. | Retrieval Number: 100.1/ijitee.G99930611722 | DOI: 10.35940/ijitee.G9993.0611722
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© The Authors. Blue Eyes Intelligence Engineering and Sciences Publication (BEIESP). This is an open access article under the CC-BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)

Abstract: Software has evolved into a critical component in today’s world. The quantity of faults in a software product is connected to its quality, which is also restricted by time and cost. In terms of both quality and cost, software faults are costly. The practice of tracing problematic components in software prior to the product’s launch is known as software defect prediction. Defects are unavoidable, but we should strive to keep the number of defects to a bare minimum. Defect prediction results in shorter development times, lower costs, less rework, higher customer satisfaction, and more dependable software. As a result, defect prediction procedures are critical for achieving software quality and learning from prior errors.In this study, we conduct a review of the literature from the last two decades and look into recent advancements in the field of defect prediction.
Keywords: Attribute Selection, Defect Prediction, Software Quality, Defect Detection.
Scope of the Article: Regression and Prediction

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G99820611722

IJITEE Journal — Fri, 03 Jun 2022 09:37:35 +0000

End-to-End Machine Learning Pipeline for Real-Time Network Traffic Classification and Monitoring in Android Automotive
Sriram M¹, A Susmithaa Raam², B Vignesh³, Balasubramanian V⁴
¹Sriram M, UG Student, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering, Chennai (Tamil Nadu), India.
²Susmithaa Raam A, UG Student, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering, Chennai (Tamil Nadu), India.
³Vignesh B, UG Student, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering, Chennai (Tamil Nadu), India.
⁴Dr. Balasubramanian V*, Associate Professor, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering, Chennai (Tamil Nadu), India.
Manuscript received on 23 May 2022. | Revised Manuscript received on 30 May 2022. | Manuscript published on 30 June 2022. | PP: 32-38 | Volume-11 Issue-7, June 2022. | Retrieval Number: 100.1/ijitee.G99820611722 | DOI: 10.35940/ijitee.G9982.0611722
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© The Authors. Blue Eyes Intelligence Engineering and Sciences Publication (BEIESP). This is an open access article under the CC-BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)

Abstract: The aim of this work is to build a network traffic monitoring application that is capable of categorizing network data traffic based on their application usage into 7 types: Browsing, Chat, Email, File Transfer, Streaming, VoIP and P2P. Flow-wise data is analyzed after the traffic stream is fed into the CICFlowmeter. Live traffic flow is fed to various ML models and algorithms such as K-Means Clustering algorithm, Agglomerative Clustering, Mean-shift algorithm, Random Forest Classifier, Adaptive Boosting algorithm, Gradient Boosting algorithm, Linear Discriminant analysis, Naive Bayes classifier, Classification and regression trees and the Support Vector Machine model. K-fold cross validation test is conducted, which derived results depicting the best of the models to be the Random Forest Classifier. We used 23 features for model training based on their importances. Model evaluation is done using the confusion matrix. Class imbalances are handled effectively with a comparative study of both under-sampling and oversampling of the dataset. Oversampling using SMOTE produces better results. The important timebased features in classification is recorded for further studies. The model used was fast enough to classify the flows in real time and display the analytics in the dashboard. The Flask framework is used to build a live dashboard to display the network traffic classified along with the several important features. We were able to prove that network traffic classification cam be done using time-based features which does not violate data protection laws. Network traffic classification using Random forest algorithm on oversampled dataset gave an overall accuracy of 0.92 was achieved.
Keywords: Machine Learning, Android Automotive, CICFlowmeter, Network Flow Classifier
Scope of the Article: Machine Learning

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G99830611722

IJITEE Journal — Fri, 03 Jun 2022 09:29:11 +0000

Designing and Implementing Accommodation Management System: ASHAMS as Case Analysis
Ronok Bhowmik¹, Md. Hasnat Riaz²
¹Ronok Bhowmik*, Department of Computer Science and Telecommunication Engineering, Noakhali Science and Technology University (NSTU), Noakhali, Bangladesh.
²Md. Hasnat Riaz, Department of Computer Science and Telecommunication Engineering, Noakhali Science and Technology University (NSTU), Noakhali, Bangladesh.
Manuscript received on 23 May 2022. | Revised Manuscript received on 30 May 2022. | Manuscript published on 30 June 2022. | PP: 21-31 | Volume-11 Issue-7, June 2022. | Retrieval Number: 100.1/ijitee.G99830611722 | DOI: 10.35940/ijitee.G9983.0611722
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© The Authors. Blue Eyes Intelligence Engineering and Sciences Publication (BEIESP). This is an open access article under the CC-BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)

Abstract: Most Bangladeshi schools, colleges and universities rehearse the old conventional and manual accommodation management procedures. Accommodation management in a manual way is a tedious paperwork process since it involves unnecessary time consumption and lots of unwanted errors. This manual procedure lingers the seat management process (allocation-deallocation, room shifting (reallocation), etc.) and slows down the overall work speed for both the hall managerial bodies and students. We have explored the feasibility studies and requirement analysis considering all the manual accommodation management processes. We have proposed and designed a web-based Abdus Salam Hall Accommodation Management System (ASHAMS) according to the outcome obtained. Tools used to implement the system are Microsoft Visual studio and ASP.net framework as the front-end and SQL Server as the back-end server database. We proposed ASHAMS as a pilot project, and further implementation depends on the success of this project. We collected data from Bhasha Shahid Abdus Salam Hall, Noakhali Science and Technology University (NSTU), Bangladesh, for the entire development purpose of ASHAMS. Using ASHAMS, Hall (dormitory/hostel) authority can easily manage the hall details, room details, seat management process and reduce human errors. Hopefully, ASHAMS will overcome the shortcomings of conventional accommodation management procedures; improve the service quality, productivity, personnel efficiency, reliability, and transparency in the organization.
Keywords: Agile Methodology, Accommodation Management System, SQL Server, Use Case diagram.
Scope of the Article: Software Analysis, Design and Modelling

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G99690611722

IJITEE Journal — Sat, 28 May 2022 06:25:29 +0000

A Comparative Analysis of a Hybrid System with Hybrid Methodologies
Ritu Sharma¹, Raginee Sharma², Achala Jain³
¹Ritu Sharma, Department of Electrical Engineering, Shri Shankaracharya Group of Institutions, Bhilai (Chhattisgarh), India.
²Raginee Sharma*, Department of Electrical Engineering, Rungta College of Engineering and Technology, Bhilai (Chhattisgarh), India.
³Dr. Achala Jain, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Shri Shankaracharya Group of Institutions, Bhilai (Chhattisgarh), India.
Manuscript received on 15 May 2022. | Revised Manuscript received on 26 May 2022. | Manuscript published on 30 June 2022. | PP: 17-20 | Volume-11 Issue-7, June 2022. | Retrieval Number: 100.1/ijitee.G99690611722 | DOI: 10.35940/ijitee.G9969.0611722
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© The Authors. Blue Eyes Intelligence Engineering and Sciences Publication (BEIESP). This is an open access article under the CC-BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)

Abstract: Economic Load Dispatch (ELD) is an important optimization problem in the energy system. Economic Dispatch (ED) is a short-term determination of the optimal performance of a set of power generation assets to meet the system load at the lowest possible cost, taking into account transmission and operational constraints. Economic dispatch problems are solved by dedicated computer software that needs to take into account the operational and system limitations of available resources and corresponding transmission functions. Economic load balancing provides optimal cost savings for power plant operations where methodologies can be applied in a variety of ways, from traditional to advanced. To achieve this, traditional methods have been used from the last few years to the 90’s, but in the last few decades AI methods have met their needs and validated satisfactory results. Some advanced hybrid techniques used are the Modified Salp Swarm Optimization Algorithm (MSSA) with Artificial Intelligent (AI) technique aided with Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) technique, Improved Moth-Fly Optimization Algorithm (IMFOA) with the Recurrent Neural Network (RNN), the Improved Fruit Fly Optimization Algorithm (IFOA) with Artificial Neural Network (ANN) system and Lightning Search Algorithm (LSA) with Genetic Algorithm (GA) which will encourage the researches for providing better solution for economic load dispatch problem is presented in this paper.
Keywords: AI, ANN, ELD, ED, GA, IFOA, IMFOA, LSA, MSSA, PSO, RNN
Scope of the Article: Artificial Intelligence

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F98640511622

IJITEE Journal — Sat, 28 May 2022 06:18:40 +0000

Big Data Analytics Model for Preventing the Spread of COVID-19 During Hajj using the Proposed Smart Hajj Application
Ibtehal Nafea
Dr. Ibtehal Nafea*, Assistant Professor, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, College of Taibah University, Saudi Arabia.

Manuscript received on 04 April 2022. | Revised Manuscript received on 21 May 2022. | Manuscript published on 30 June 2022. | PP: 10-16 | Volume-11 Issue-7, June 2022. | Retrieval Number: 100.1/ijitee.F98640511622 | DOI: 10.35940/ijitee.F9864.0611722
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© The Authors. Blue Eyes Intelligence Engineering and Sciences Publication (BEIESP). This is an open access article under the CC-BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)

Abstract: Unlike the Pool of Bethesda, Makkah is a moment of sacrifice, a space of unified worship in the lives of Muslim worshipers. The Makkah experience symbolizes the “farewell pilgrimage” of the Prophet Muhammad through the Arabian desert in 632 A.D. (Aljazeera, 2021). The annual Hajj expedition to the Saudi holy city is the fifth of the five Muslim Pillars of Islam. Hajj occurs during Dhu’al-Hijjah, the last month of the year according to the Islamic calendar. Millions of people from across the world assemble to pray in the direction of Ka’bah, the holiest Islamic shrine constructed by Abraham and Ishmael. The 2012 Hajj attracted more than 3 million pilgrims journeyed to Hajj. However, the 2019 SARS-CoV-2 outbreak has since forced decision-makers for the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to take further preventive measures in the interests of public health that affect the outcomes of the traditional prayer and worship. Saudi Arabian government officials significantly downsized capacity and instituted protocols for attendance to the 2020 and 2021 Hajj events due to the Covid-19 pandemic. In addition to Muslim pilgrimages, several nations have implemented mHealth apps designed for Covid-19 contact tracing, quarantine enforcement, symptom monitoring, and information provision for mass crowding events. Independently, the apps do not provide a holistic approach to Covid-19 transmission control in mass gatherings. A more universal, less intrusive technological approaches to managing and protecting the Hajj pilgrimage populations using credible, real-time data is needful. This study proposes an information-generating SMART app based on the success of prior apps, the implementation of a Smart Hajj application, which allows authorities to track Hajj pilgrim movement, and collect data as a part of efforts to prevent Covid-19 from disrupting centuries-old tradition Muslim pilgrimages to worship in sacred places.
Keywords: Hajj, Covid-19, SMART app, Big Data, Saudi Arabia.
Scope of the Article: Big Data Analytics

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G99410611722

IJITEE Journal — Sat, 21 May 2022 06:10:37 +0000

Review on Intractability
Krishnendu Basuli
Dr. Krishnendu Basuli*, Assistant Professor, Department of Computer Science, West Bengal University, Barasat, Kolkata (West Bengal), India.

Manuscript received on 04 May 2022. | Revised Manuscript received on 18 May 2022. | Manuscript published on 30 June 2022. | PP: 7-9 | Volume-11 Issue-7, June 2022. | Retrieval Number: 100.1/ijitee.G99410611722 | DOI: 10.35940/ijitee.G9941.0611722
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© The Authors. Blue Eyes Intelligence Engineering and Sciences Publication (BEIESP). This is an open access article under the CC-BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)

Abstract: In real life, the problems may be of infinite dimensions. Design of ingenious information structure, for minimizing complexity and redundancy of the problem space are versatile. This is unique in the sense: given an arbitrary ’n’ node graph the problem becomes countable infinite and in some cases it is uncountable infinite. Problems which can be mapped as graphs are normally simple in nature but we remember the adage “Simple things are mighty things”. What we mean that normally for example it is a practice to bring undue mathematics to make things complex but although the graph algorithms are of exponential complexity for large dimension.
Keywords: Intractability, Algorithm, Complexity, problems, NP, NP-Complete, NP-Hard, Approximation Algorithm, Heuristic, Reducibility.
Scope of the Article: Analysis of Algorithms and Computational Complexity

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